Published online Oct Abdolmajid Fadaei. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Abdolmajid Fadaei: moc. Received Jun 6; Accepted Oct 2. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Associated Data Data Availability Statement All the data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article. Abstract Background Recently, an outbreak of a novel human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has become a world health concern leading to severe respiratory tract infections in humans. Method A comprehensive search was systematically conducted in main databases from to to identify various viral disinfectants associated with HCoV and methods for control and prevention of this newly emerged virus.
Conclusion The results of the present study can help researchers, policymakers, health decision makers, and people perceive and take the correct measures to control and prevent further transmission of COVID Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Results According to the searched studies, different types of physical disinfectants used for viral inactivation include dry heat, moist heat, gamma irradiation, visible light plus methylene blue MB plasma units , and ultraviolet C Table 1.
Table 1 Inactivation of viruses by different types of physical disinfectants. Table 2 Inactivation of viruses by different types of chemical disinfectants. Discussion Viral inactivation by physical and chemical disinfectants has a wide application in human disease-control programs to prevent the spread of viral infectious diseases.
General Recommendations to Be Followed Before using any disinfectant, any surface should be initially cleaned with a water and detergent solution. Conclusions In conclusion, the obtained results indicated that the WHO-recommended alcohol-based formulations were validated with various enveloped viruses. Data Availability All the data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article. Conflicts of Interest The author declares no conflicts of interest. Authors' Contributions A.
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Predicted inactivation of viruses of relevance to biodefense by solar radiation. Journal of Virology. Sagripanti J. Photochemistry and Photobiology. Inactivation of vaccinia virus by natural sunlight and by artificial UVB radiation.
Eickmann M. Inactivation of three emerging viruses severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus and Nipah virus-in platelet concentrates by ultraviolet C light and in plasma by methylene blue plus visible light. Vox Sanguinis. Manuela B. Far-UVC light nm efficiently and safely inactivates airborne human coronaviruses. Results: After 2. For air saturated with TEG at 25 to 29 degrees C, the disinfection rate was about 1. At these low concentrations, the potential for damage to even the avionics of an airplane would be expected to be minimal.
At a TEG vapor concentration of 2 ppm, there are essentially no health risks to people. Groups of 3 coupons were removed from the exposure chamber after predetermined exposure times.
The control coupons that were kept in the biological safety cabinet were not exposed to HP or TEG and thus were considered unexposed coupons. No visible residue remained. Experiments in which influenza viruses deposited on stainless steel coupons were exposed to HP vapor were performed in a L cubical plexiglass chamber located within a laboratory fume hood.
Prediction of the HP concentration in an aqueous solution required for a specific HP vapor concentration was based on published correlations. The air inside the chamber was kept well mixed through the use of 2 small fans. RH and temperature also were measured periodically with a hygrometer Omega Engineering, Stamford, CT and a mercury thermometer. About 5 months later, immediately after the completion of our experiments, the instrument was sent back to the manufacturer for recalibration.
Thus, within the accuracy of the calibration method, the instrument's calibration remained stable during our experiments. After a constant HP vapor concentration was reached in the exposure chamber, test coupons were inserted into the chamber through a vertically opening sliding door. While inserting test coupons, the door was lifted only very slightly, keeping the HP vapor concentration essentially constant. Experiments in which influenza viruses deposited on stainless steel coupons were exposed to TEG vapor were done in the same well-mixed chamber used for the HP vapor experiments.
Greater care was taken to seal the chamber, however, and dry air was not added to the chamber. A beaker of water was placed within the chamber to help maintain a reasonably constant RH. Without the beaker of water, the RH in the chamber would decrease over time, because TEG is very hydroscopic. The chamber was left overnight to ensure equilibrium conditions.
Test coupons were then inserted into the chamber by opening the sliding door only slightly, so as to minimize disruption of equilibrium conditions.
The concentration of TEG vapor was not measured. Because we allowed a large pool of nearly pure liquid TEG located on the floor of the well-mixed exposure chamber to reach equilibrium with the gas phase, the air was essentially saturated with TEG, and the partial pressure of TEG p T E G was approximately equal to its vapor pressure P T E G o.
TEG vapor pressure can be calculated from the Antoine equation, Actually, because liquid TEG is so hydroscopic, the pool of TEG on the chamber floor would tend to become diluted with water over time, so that the mole fraction of TEG vapor would be somewhat less than 1. But because of the relatively large amount of liquid TEG in the chamber, dilution would not be expected to have a very significant effect on TEG vapor concentration. All virus assays for an experiment were then performed at the same time, usually in the same well plate.
Because growing and maintaining cells is somewhat of an art, performing all assays for an experiment at the same time is important to getting consistent results. Because of the extended duration of the experiment, we could not use this methodology to measure the natural inactivation rate of influenza viruses; thus, we used an alternative procedure.
This procedure was repeated multiple times. At the end of the experiment, the virus residue on each coupon was extracted, and all residues were assayed at the same time and in the same plate.
The number of log 10 reductions n is equal to the difference between the logarithm of the FFU per volume for unexposed and exposed coupons,.
Because 3 coupons were exposed and 3 coupons were not exposed during any specific time period, unexposed and exposed coupons could not be separated into pairs. Thus, s n is a measure of the experimental variability for identical coupons used during a single experiment conducted under a specific set of operating conditions. It does not include experimental variability arising from replication of the experiment at a different time under the same set of operating conditions.
This calculation is based on the assumption that a single FFU detected from any of the 3 coupons exposed at a specific test condition corresponds to the limit of detection. Even at a HP vapor concentration as low as 10 ppm, about a 2-log 10 reduction was observed after 2. But the number of log 10 reductions did not increase with increases in either exposure time or HP vapor concentration as much as would be predicted based on a linear relationship. If a HP vapor concentration of 10 ppm and an exposure time of 2.
For 15 minutes of exposure time, the highest measured disinfection rate was a 4. An additional experiment, not shown in Figure 1 , in which influenza viruses were exposed at a HP vapor concentration of 57 ppm for 60 minutes resulted in a 5. Surface disinfection of influenza viruses with HP vapor. Based on eqs 1 and 2 , the concentration of TEG vapor in these experiments ranged from 1. The number of log 10 reductions n versus exposure time t appears to follow a linear relationship given by.
This linear regression line has been forced through the origin; however, there is sufficient scatter around this regression line to make a nonlinear relationship a distinct possibility. Nevertheless, the disinfection rate attributable to TEG vapor can be approximated as 1. Equation 7 is equivalent to eq 8 , the equation for exponential decay of the fraction of viruses remaining active f ,.
Surface disinfection of influenza viruses with TEG-saturated air. For the purpose of comparison with chemical disinfection experiments, we measured the natural inactivation rate at ambient indoor conditions of influenza viruses deposited on stainless steel coupons.
Figure 3 plots the number of log 10 reductions versus time for 2 separate experiments done 9 months apart. Although only 2 of the data points in the figure are associated with the earlier experiment, other coupons exposed in this experiment for 96 hours or longer were found to be virus-free.
Based on data points from both experiments, the number of log 10 reductions n versus exposure time t can be approximated with a linear relationship given by. This linear regression line has been forced through the origin; however, the scatter around this regression line suggests that a nonlinear relationship is plausible as well.
Nonetheless, the natural decay rate of influenza viruses can be approximated as 0. Natural inactivation of influenza viruses on stainless steel coupons at ambient conditions. As exposure time increases, the log 10 reduction rate decreases significantly; thus, as shown in Figure 1 , the number of log 10 reductions for the initial 2. This trend holds for all HP vapor concentrations evaluated.
For example, at a HP vapor concentration of 90 ppm the highest concentration tested , the number of log 10 reductions was 3. Nonetheless, an important outcome of these tests was that during the initial 2. If the number of log 10 reductions at 10 ppm HP vapor versus exposure time were linear, then 15 minutes of exposure would have resulted in sterilization 12 log 10 reductions.
Instead, because of the nonlinearity of the curve, only 3. This is a significant reduction for such a low HP vapor concentration. The 8-hour time-weighted average threshold limit value TLV 18 and Occupational Safety and Health Administration permissible exposure limit 19 for occupational HP vapor exposure are both 1 ppm. This suggests that ppm HP vapor is a relatively safe concentration over a brief period, although the TLV includes the caveat that HP vapor is a confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans.
Dividing eq 7 by eq 9 indicates that TEG vapor increases the log 10 reduction rate of influenza viruses by a factor of 16 relative to the natural inactivation rate. For example, for a minute exposure, the disinfection rate was 0. Nonetheless, TEG vapor has some important advantages for use as a disinfectant.
For surface disinfection using TEG vapor, ambient air or warmed air could be easily saturated with TEG before being introduced into a space.
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